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Facial expressions are produced to express a reaction to a situation or event or to evoke a response from another individual or individuals. They are signals of emotion and social intent. People make faces in response to "direct audience effects"〔Fridlund, A. J. (1991). Sociality of social smiling: Potentiation of an implicit audience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(2), 229-240. Retrieved from http://www.ffri.uniri.hr/~ibrdar/komunikacija/seminari/ (Fridlund, 1991), 1991 - Sociality and solitary smiling.pdf〕 when they are watching sports, discussing politics, eating or smelling, in pain, and see or hear something humorous. While one may have the same emotional reaction to a particular situation, he or she is more likely to express this emotion via a facial expression if they are in a social situation. Smiles, in particular, are "evolved signaling displays () are the result of selective pressures for conspicuous, stereotyped, and redundant communication".〔Schmidt, K. L., Cohn, J. F., & Tian, Y. (2003). Signal characteristics of spontaneous facial expressions: Automatic movement in solitary and social smiles. National Institute of Health Public Access Manuscripts, 65(1), 49-66. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2839541/〕 Smiling is a visual signal that requires eye contact from the recipient to the one smiling〔Russell, J. A., & Fernández-Dols, J. M. (1997). The Psychology of Facial Expression. (pp. 159-161). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.〕 and is intended to communicate a feeling of happiness and joy. In an experiment by Alan Fridlund, smiling occurred least when one was watching a video alone, then more often when a person was alone watching the video but believed a friend was performing another task, even more often when that person believed a friend was simultaneously watching the video somewhere else, and most often when one was watching a movie with a friend physically present. This evidence shows that even if someone has the same internal reaction to a stimulus (like a movie), they are more likely to externalize these feelings when surrounded by peers or under the assumption that peers are engaged in the same activity.〔 The production of facial expressions, however, is not solely limited to interpersonal situations. Since humans are inherently social beings, they often imagine themselves in social situations even when they are alone. This phenomenon occurs in a variety of different contexts: treating oneself as a social interactant (talking to oneself), imagining others are present (either who are currently existent or have died), envisioning future social interactions, and personifying animals or inanimate objects (talking to pets).〔 Solitary facial expressions are generated for an imagined other. According to role and impression- management theories, a perceived audience, whether real or imaginary, causes one to assume a role that is consistent with their audience. For example, a young girl may smile to herself in the mirror while imagining herself talking to a boy from class, but may grimace while imagining herself responding to her mother's scolding. Thus, "solitary faces occur for the same reasons as public ones, if only because when we are alone we create social interactions in our imaginations. They suggest the possibility that sociality may play a major role in the mediation of solitary faces".〔 There are developmental differences in solitary facial expression, beginning with instinctive expressions in infancy and developing into more complex ones as a child's concept of sociality and emotion matures. ==Discrimination and production of facial expressions in infants== A concept of sociality is acquired over time and through various social interactions. It has long been theorized that children expand the ability to regulate their facial expressions during the course of their development and that their expressions become "socialized" as they grow up.〔Malatesta, C., & Haviland, J. (1982). Learning display rules: The socialization of emotion expression in infancy. Child Development, 53(4), 991-1003. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1129139〕 But how soon does socialization start and how big of a role does it play during infancy? Because infants cannot use words to tell us about their emotional states, their facial expressions are of particular importance. During infancy it is difficult to elicit discrete negative expressions like anger, distress and sadness,〔Messinger, D. (2002). Positive and negative: Infant facial expressions and emotions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11(1), 1-6. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20182752〕 and, perhaps unsurprisingly, the most common infant facial expression is the "cry-face". Cry-face is thought to integrate aspects of both anger and distress expressions and may indicate a shared basis in negative emotionality.〔 Smiling, on the other hand, is easily recognized as an expression of happiness, but even here there is a distinction between cheek-raising or Duchenne smiles and non-emotional smiles, which are thought to be used mainly as social signals.〔 Even in 10-month-old infants, Duchenne smiles have been found to occur most often in reaction to infants' mothers.〔Fox, N., & Davidson, R.J. (1988). Patterns of brain electrical activity during facial signs of emotion in 10-month-old infants. Developmental Psychology, 24,230-236〕 According to Ekman and Friesen (1975),〔Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. Unmasking the face. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1975.〕 there are "display rules", influenced by one's culture, gender and family background which govern the way we modulate our emotional expression. Studies investigating mother-infant interaction suggest that infants are exposed to these "display rules" first during face-to-face play with mom. In a study performed by Malatesta and Haviland (1982)〔 researchers found evidence that changes in emotional expression during infancy are greatly influenced by this type of interaction and that there were differences among infants under 6 months of age based on both gender and family background. This suggests that during infancy these "display rules" are already taking effect. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Developmental differences in solitary facial expressions」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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